The Beginning of the Universe

Here is a single seed. Let’s bury it in the soil and sprinkle it with water from a watering can. Then the seed begins to change. That change shows itself, stage by stage, as a geometric pattern that includes time. Let’s go through it in chronological order.

The Life Cycle of a Plant

• In the soil, the seed absorbs water and its outer coat begins to swell. Chemical changes take place inside. All of this happens within 24 hours (or so it is said).
• Using the energy stored inside it, the seed begins to send out a root. The root grows toward the center of its planet, that is, drawn by gravity, and gets ready to absorb water and materialized energy from the soil. All of this happens within 1–7 days (or so it is said).
• Once the root has finished its preparations in the soil, the stem grows toward the cosmos, that is, in the direction opposite to gravity, and a sprout emerges above the ground. Once the sprout is above the soil, it puts out its first leaves, begins photosynthesis, and starts to grow. All of this happens within 1–2 weeks (or so it is said).

This sequence of events is the stage called “germination.”

• As the first leaves, the cotyledons, grow, the true leaves begin to appear. The true leaves are larger than the cotyledons and show the characteristics of each plant. At this stage the plant photosynthesizes even more actively and keeps growing. All of this happens within 2–4 weeks (or so it is said).
• While the parts above ground grow, the roots below spread even further through the soil. This allows the plant to absorb more water and materialized energy, accelerating its growth further. All of this happens within 4–6 weeks (or so it is said).

This sequence of events is the stage called “growth.”

• The plant increases in height and number of leaves and reaches its peak of growth. At this point, some plants prepare to flower. All of this happens within 6–8 weeks (or so it is said).
• Plants that flower form buds here, and eventually the flowers bloom. Through pollination, the flowers prepare to bear fruit and seeds. All of this happens within 8–12 weeks (or so it is said).

This sequence of events is the stage called “maturity.”

• After the flowers bloom, if pollination succeeds, fruit begins to set. When the fruit ripens, new seeds form inside it. Everything is ready to begin the next cycle once again. All of this happens from week 12 onward (or so it is said).

This sequence of events is the stage called “fruiting.”

The seed germinates, grows, matures, and bears fruit. And then the life of the next generation of seeds begins. The specific timeline and process may differ depending on the species and environmental conditions, but the structure of this overall flow is common to all.

Seeds give birth to seeds. This endlessly continuing recursive structure is the life cycle of a “plant,” but it closely resembles the life cycle of the “universe.”

The Life Cycle of the Universe

Let’s go through, in chronological order, the events in the developmental process from the birth of the universe to the birth of the Earth.

• The universe is born. We set this event at 0 seconds. It is called the Big Bang.
• The universe, having swelled up abruptly, is in an extremely hot, dense state. All the energy of the universe was packed into a minuscule region. It is also a state in which the concepts of space, time, and matter cannot be fully explained by the physical laws we know today. The temperature of the universe was about 10³² kelvin or more. The hottest part of the Sun, its core, is about 15 million kelvin, so it was hot enough to deserve “super” thirty-two times over. Here, all the “forces” (gravity, electromagnetism, the strong force, and the weak force) were unified into one, apparently. The energy density in this period was extremely high, and all particles were in high-energy states. Photons in this period were extremely energetic and may have had energies even greater than today’s gamma rays. However, this process, known as the Planck era, cannot be explained by modern physics (particularly general relativity and the Standard Model). All particles, photons included, were under the influence of the unified “force,” and their behavior may have differed from the laws of physics as we know them. New theories such as quantum gravity and superstring theory have been proposed, but no theory can yet fully explain it, or so it is held. All of this happens between 0 seconds and about 10⁻⁴³ seconds (the Planck time) (or so it is said). This is called the Planck era.
• Still an extremely hot, dense state. “Gravity” alone separates from the single “force” and becomes independent. The fundamental forces other than gravity are still united as one. The temperature of the universe is around 10³² kelvin. The distribution of matter and energy was highly uniform. Elementary particles existed freely and were subject to the “force,” apparently. At the end of this process, the temperature of the universe begins to drop sharply. The “strong force” separates from the single “force.” Once the strong force has separated, it begins binding quarks together to form hadrons (protons and neutrons). Experimental evidence for this process is scarce, so these events are a hypothetical account. All of this happens between about 10⁻⁴³ seconds and about 10⁻³⁶ seconds (or so it is said). This is called the grand unification era.
• The universe expands exponentially and rapidly. Like a balloon being inflated, the universe grows rapidly in size by a factor of about 10²⁶. This rapid expansion smoothed out the fluctuations in temperature and density of the early universe. The expansion of the universe proceeded exponentially, but the energy density remained nearly constant. The temperature is also thought to have remained almost constant. The temperature of the universe was still extremely high, in the range of about 10²⁷ to about 10³² kelvin. When the rapid expansion ends, energy is converted into other particles and the universe is reheated. Reheating made the temperature extremely high again, but not as high as before the rapid expansion. The temperature after reheating was in the range of about 10²² to about 10²⁸ kelvin. During this reheating period, elementary particles form, and the universe moves into the ordinary expansion phase following the Big Bang. This process is also a hypothetical account, but observations of the cosmic background radiation suggest that something like this actually happened. All of this happens between about 10⁻³⁶ seconds and about 10⁻³² seconds (or so it is said). This is called the inflationary era.

This sequence of events is the stage corresponding to the “germination of the universe”¹. Once a seed has finished germinating, the seedling is established, and it enters a stable stage of growth, its metabolic activity settles down.

• The temperature of the universe drops from about 10¹² kelvin to about 10¹⁰ kelvin. The universe was in a state of quark–gluon plasma, in which quarks and gluons exist freely. As the universe expands and cools, quarks and gluons combine and begin to form hadrons. Quarks combine in threes to form baryons (for example, protons and neutrons). Mesons (pairs of a quark and an antiquark) also form, but it is the baryons that remain stable. In the hot, high-energy state, particles and antiparticles exist in vast numbers. As the universe cools, particles and antiparticles annihilate each other and are converted into energy. Because of an imbalance in this annihilation, a small amount of matter remains, becoming the origin of the matter that makes up today’s universe. All of this happens between about 10⁻⁶ seconds and 1 second (or so it is said). This is called the hadron era.
• The temperature of the universe drops from about 10¹⁰ kelvin to about 10⁹ kelvin. As the universe continues to cool, leptons (electrons, muons, tau particles, and neutrinos) become dominant. Interactions between leptons and photons become the main physical process. As the universe cools, neutrinos almost stop interacting with other matter and come to drift freely through the universe. The neutrinos freed in this process still remain in the universe today as the “cosmic neutrino background.” The number density and energy of neutrinos affect the rate of the universe’s expansion and the formation of structure. As the universe cools, electrons and positrons (anti-electrons) annihilate each other. This annihilation releases huge numbers of photons (gamma rays). When the universe cools further and falls below about 10⁹ kelvin, this process comes to an end. Hadrons (protons and neutrons) become stable, and the universe moves into the next era, the “photon era.” Observations of the cosmic background radiation and data from neutrino detectors are advancing research into this process. All of this happens between about 1 second and 10 seconds (or so it is said). This is called the lepton era.
• The temperature of the universe drops from about 10⁹ kelvin to about 3,000 kelvin. Photons, electrons, and protons interact, forming a plasma. High-energy photons scatter off electrons and cannot travel freely. Early in this process, Big Bang nucleosynthesis takes place and light elements (mainly hydrogen and helium) are formed. Most of the helium in today’s universe was created during this period. As the universe continues to expand and cool, electrons and protons begin to combine to form neutral hydrogen atoms. As a result, photons can travel freely without being scattered by electrons (recombination). As this state, called “recombination,” progresses, the universe becomes transparent to photons. The photons released during this period are observed today as the cosmic background radiation. The cosmic background radiation consists of photons released during recombination that have reached us today, and it reflects the initial state of the universe. Tiny temperature fluctuations in the cosmic background radiation reflect density fluctuations in the early universe and become the seeds of the galaxies and stars that form later. Recombination is completed and the photon era ends. The universe moves into the next era, the “dark ages.” All of this happens between about 10 seconds and 380,000 years (or so it is said). This is called the photon era.

This sequence of events is the stage corresponding to the “growth of the universe”². The energy at first used for its own growth is redirected into storage in preparation for reproduction. The rate of growth gradually decreases.

• During this period, the temperature of the universe drops from about 3,000 kelvin to a few kelvin. Since recombination is complete, the universe contains gas made of neutral hydrogen and helium. Photons can travel freely, but because no light-emitting objects exist yet, the universe is dark. The universe keeps expanding and its temperature drops further. The neutral gas gradually cools, and gas clouds form under the influence of gravity. The initial density fluctuations are amplified by gravity, and the gas clouds condense. These gas clouds later become the seeds from which stars and galaxies form. “Dark matter” interacts with ordinary matter through gravity and helps the gas clouds form. The distribution of dark matter influences the later formation of galaxies and galaxy clusters. About 500 million years later, the first stars form and begin to shine. This marks the end of the dark ages and, at the same time, the beginning of the era of reionization. The dark ages are difficult to observe directly, but their influence can be inferred from the present distribution of galaxies and star clusters. Advances in telescope and instrument technology are moving detailed research on the dark ages forward. All of this happens between about 380,000 years and 500 million years (or so it is said). This is called the dark ages.
• The temperature of the universe gradually drops from several tens of kelvin. The first stars, formed by gravity condensing gas clouds, are extremely massive and hot, and emit vast numbers of ultraviolet photons. These stars were short-lived, exploding as supernovae and scattering heavy elements across the universe. Ultraviolet photons from the first stars and galaxies begin to ionize the neutral hydrogen. As neutral hydrogen atoms are ionized, they break apart into free electrons and protons. Reionization proceeds locally and gradually spreads throughout the universe. Quasars (active galactic nuclei) also become important light sources for reionization. The powerful radiation emitted by quasars ionizes the surrounding gas. Reionization proceeds unevenly, at first forming local ionized regions. These multiple ionized regions grow and eventually merge, and the entire universe becomes reionized. Reionization makes the universe transparent to high-energy photons. As a result, light can travel freely over long distances. The end of the era of reionization can be inferred by observing light from distant galaxies and quasars. Polarization measurements of the cosmic background radiation also provide information about how reionization progressed. About 1 billion years later, most of the neutral hydrogen in the universe has been reionized, and the era of reionization ends. The energy released as photons ionize the neutral hydrogen temporarily raises the temperature. After this, the universe moves into the present era of star formation and galaxy evolution. All of this happens between about 500 million years and 1 billion years (or so it is said). This is called the era of reionization.
• The temperature of the universe drops from several thousand kelvin to several hundred kelvin. After reionization has progressed, the gas continues to cool and star formation becomes active. Gravity gathers gas clouds together, and the first galaxies form. Early galaxies attract one another and repeatedly collide and merge, forming larger galaxies. This process has a great influence on the shapes and structures of galaxies. For example, elliptical galaxies are thought to form mainly through galaxy mergers. Galaxies are classified according to their shapes (the Hubble classification). The main types include spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies, and irregular galaxies. Through gravity, galaxies form even larger structures (galaxy clusters and superclusters). The large-scale structure of the universe is formed by galaxy clusters arranged in a network. A process of “hierarchical structure formation” proceeds, in which small structures gradually gather to form larger ones. The gravitational influence of dark matter contributes greatly to this process. Star formation continues within galaxies, new stars are born, and the evolution of galaxies is driven forward. As star formation becomes more active, local rises in temperature are seen. Local high-temperature phenomena also occur, such as in the interiors of stars and in supernova explosions. As the universe continues to expand, its overall temperature gradually drops. The rate of star formation peaked in the early universe and has gradually declined since. The universe is still expanding at an accelerating rate today, which is thought to be due to dark energy. Accelerating expansion increases the distances between galaxies and galaxy clusters and affects the large-scale structure of the universe. All of this happens between about 1 billion years and several billion years (or so it is said). This is called the era of galaxy formation. It includes the formation of the Solar System and the formation of the Earth.
• Today, the temperature of the universe is about 2.7 kelvin, measured from the observed temperature of the cosmic background radiation. Local temperatures (for example, inside galaxies or in stars) can be extremely high, but the universe as a whole continues to cool.
• As for how the universe will develop in the future, many different predictions have been made.

This sequence of events is the stage corresponding to the “maturity and fruiting of the universe”³. Fully grown, it is ready to reproduce. Flowers bloom and fruits form. Energy is allocated intensively to them. Overall metabolic activity stabilizes. Some signs of aging also appear.

Understanding Plants Is Understanding the Universe

Just as topology treats a donut and a coffee mug as having the same structure, seen topologically, galaxies are the flowers of the universe. The light emitted by stars represents the colors of the universe’s flowers. At the center of a cosmic flower, a cosmic fruit forms, and inside it a new cosmic seed is born. Exploring the history of the universe since its birth lets us play with bold conjectures like this.

At the center of a galaxy, it is said, there is a supermassive black hole. The center of a galaxy is a region with an extremely high density of stars, home to many star clusters and old stars. New stars form actively in the central region. The central region of a galaxy contains large amounts of gas and dust, which serve as material for star formation. At the centers of some galaxies there are extremely bright regions called active galactic nuclei, thought to emit intense radiation as their black holes swallow vast amounts of matter… What might the “fruit of the universe” refer to? If “seeds of the universe” exist, might many different kinds of universes exist as well? The universe is overflowing with mysteries.

The development of the universe is non-simultaneous. Over there, a spiral galaxy; over here, an elliptical galaxy; there, young stars; here, a red giant. It is just like how a single plant, within one body, shows us a variety of “geometric patterns that include time”: over there, petals in full bloom; over here, buds; this part has turned white, and that part has turned orange.

If I said that the universe and plants have similar structures, pass through similar developmental processes, and develop in similar ways, many physicists might laugh. Einstein, who said “God does not play dice,” might agree with me. When I think of the fractal nature of the universe, it does not seem strange at all that incarnations of the universe should appear at scales we humans can see; in fact, it seems only natural. I think it would be far stranger for the universe alone to remain forever an abstract concept.

Grasping the Universe Through Intuition and Beauty

Just as we do not understand the importance of the heart by using mathematics, we should be able to understand the universe, as it appears before our very eyes in miraculous events we can actually touch, not “mathematically” but “sensorially,” through intuition and beauty. According to Buckminster Fuller, this universe can be explained in terms of “angle” and “frequency.” For example, the angle of a photon can express how energy spreads out. Frequency can express the magnitude of energy. It can also express color.

Just as a baseball player who wants to hit a home run pays attention to the launch angle, a photon, as a ball traveling at the speed of light, lands in very different places depending on its angle. Imagine hitting that light-speed ball. The bat changes its trajectory. Hit it squarely and it bounces straight back the way it came. Mis-hit it and it becomes a foul ball. If it breaks sharply, the catcher lets it get past. Because the ball is hard to see, the umpire puts on special sunglasses. These correspond, respectively, to reflection, refraction, diffraction, and polarization.

When catching, if you catch the ball bare-handed, you take a tremendous impact, but with a glove you can absorb that impact safely. In Thylakoid Stadium in Chloroplast City, outfielder Chlorophyll catches the Sun’s light energy and throws the captured ball to the infielders. The energy passes through several players and is stored up for use in the kids’ energy clinic. That fine play gives energy to a large crowd. This is how photosynthesis, carried out by the chloroplasts of plants, works.

And So the History of Life on Earth Begins

“Let’s photosynthesize!” The history of life on Earth began when a nameless, once-in-13.3-billion-years genius outfielder sent gloves to the organelles inside every cell of a certain organism. It happened about 1.5 billion years ago.

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Footnotes

1. This is Polymath Research’s own classification of cosmic development. As of June 2024, no such view exists in modern physics or modern cosmology. ↩

2. As with footnote 1, this is Polymath Research’s own classification of cosmic development. ↩

3. As with footnotes 1 and 2, this is Polymath Research’s own classification of cosmic development. ↩